Most of us has dealt with psychological aspects at work, for example by being stressed, engaged or disengaged etc. Perhaps you took a psychometric test as part of the recruitment and selection process? Did you think this was all down to the Human Resource Managers? It is most likely that the Organisational Psychologist designed and created the scientific tools, but the Human Resource Manager strategically implemented these into the workplace.
This wiki will explore what Organisational Psychology is, and how it developed through historical events. It will identify and explore different aspects within psychology at work. Finally, it will discuss whether or not Organisational Psychology is a new trend in management.
What is Organisational Psychology
This section are looking at how organisational psychology can be defined, and how it applies basic psychological principles.
Defining the concept
Organisations use organisational psychology in various settings, for example to ‘motivate staff, improve recruitment practices, help their employees gain new skills, cope with redundancies etc.’ (The British Psychological Society, 2000-2017). The goal is to get the most from their employees or human resources (Spector, 2003), by applying basic psychological factors to the workplace. It is easy to confuse it with Human Resource Management (HRM), however HRM apply both ‘psychological and management principles in an organisation’ (Furnham, 2005:56).
The term ‘organisational psychology’ has various labels, including ‘Industrial psychology, industrial/organisational psychology (I/O psychology, USA), occupational psychology (UK)’, ‘work psychology’ (Arnold and Randall, 2010:19). Arnold and Randall use the term ‘work psychology’ because this include both the individual and organisation levels, and they define work psychology as ‘it concerns all aspects of human behaviour, thoughts, feelings and experiences concerning work’ (2010:20). The British Psychological Society uses the term ‘occupational psychology’ and it is more focused on how to ‘get the best from their workforce and improve the job satisfaction of their employees’ (2000-2017). Bekerian and Levey argues that ‘groups are one of the most important aspects of our working environment’ and that organisational psychology is ‘concerned with understanding all aspects of groups, from how individuals form groups and develop group norms, to how groups make decisions’ (2012:116). However, Blackler argues that the main differences are that organisational psychology focuses on group and organisation oriented topics, whereas occupational psychology are more individual oriented (1985).
Basic psychology and applied psychology
Organisational psychology or work psychology, applies theories and techniques from the basic psychology which consist of five areas;
Physiological psychology – the relationship between mind and body e.g. bodily changes associated with feeling stressed at work
Cognitive psychology – thought process, often use psychometric test as a tool
Developmental psychology – how people grow and change psychologically
Social psychology – how our behaviours, thoughts and emotions affect, and are affected by other people
Personality psychology – people’s characteristics tendency to behave, think and feel in certain ways
(Arnold and Randall, 2010:6).
Figure 1 shows how information and ideas flows between the five areas of basic psychology, applied psychology and the practical opportunities and problems.
Figure 1: The relationship between areas of psychology, adapted from Arnold and Randall (2010:6).
There are disagreement around the relationship between basic- and applied psychology. Schönpflug claim that the applied psychology has not been improved by basic psychology (1993). On the other hand, Arnold and Randall argues that basic psychology supply ideas and techniques to work psychology (2010). However, Schönpflug’s claim is old, and evidences from the workplaces can be identified from the five basic elements and the eight knowledge dimensions.
History and development of Organisational Psychology
This section will give the background of how OP developed over time, and XXXXX
Roots
Two distinct roots within applied psychology;
1. Scientific-management approach
2. Human Relations movement
The scientific-management approach acknowledges the individual differences as important factors which affect productivity (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). Taylor’s (1911) studies of time and motion was central in this approach. His goal was to ‘determine the most efficient way of performing tasks’ (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). Fitting the man to the job (FMJ) and fitting the job to the man (FJM) emerged from Taylor’s studies;
Fitting the man to the job (FMJ) concerns employee selection, training and vocational guidance, and aim to achieve a productive link between job and person (Arnold and Randall, 2010).
Fitting the job to the man (FJM) focuses on the job and how to ‘design task, equipment and working conditions that suit person’s physical and psychological characteristics (Arnold and Randall, 2010).
During the first World War, the demand for recruiting suitable soldiers to various post accelerated (FMJ), and therefore developed ability and personality tests (Arnold and Randall, 2010). In addition, the ammunition factories ‘first introduced personnel selection and training’ (Bekerian and Levey, 2010:107). Another example was given by Taylor, who improved efficiency by redesigning work tools to fit the worker’s height and size (Bekerian and Levey, 2012).
After the second World War, The UK Civil Service began to employ a considerable number of psychologists after the second world war’ (Arnold and Randall, 2010:17)
Moving on, the human relation movement acknowledged that productivity and efficiency was affected by the workers’ feelings and attitudes (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). One central study in this field was the Hawthorne studies (1924-1939), which changed the emphasis away from the physical environment towards the social environment at work (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). This study found both that employees’ performance is ‘influenced by their surroundings and by the people that they are working with’ (The Economist, 2008). Read more about the Hawthorne studies.
Did you know…?
…… that in 384-322 BC was the Beginning of Psychology?
The Greek philosopher Aristotle ‘outlined a system of thought dealing with reason, will, imagination, emotion, and memory’ (Bekerian and Levey, 2012:28).
…… the First textbook in psychology was written as early as in 1874?
Willhelm Wundt, a German psychologist wrote the book ‘Foundations of Physiological Psychology’ with a scientific approach (Bekerian and Levey, 2012:16). …….it was not until Taylor (1911) studied time and motions, that the scientific management approach rise and FJM and FMJ emerged? (Bekerian and Levey, 2012).
……. that psychology was applied to work for the first time in 1913?
Hugo Münsterberg wrote the book ‘Psychology and Industrial efficiency’ and became the first recognised applied psychologist in USA (Bekerian and Levey, 2012).
Timeline
Figure 2 shows the historical overview of research on I/O psychology. Although this was applied to South Africa, many of the events are applicable to UK and other parts of the world.
Figure 2: The historical evolution of industrial and organisational psychology, retrived from Schreuder and Coetzee (2009).
Managing Organisational Psychology
This sections identifies eight knowledge dimensions of organisational psychology, and will explore psychometric testing as a management tool as well as managing well-being at work.
8 knowledge dimensions
Today, the organisational psychology can be divided into eight knowledge dimensions;
Personnel selection and assessment: e.g. tests and interviews;
Training: design, delivery and evaluation of training;
Performance appraisal and career development;
Organisational Development and change: organisational culture and climate;
Human-machine interaction: to fit human physical and cognitive capabilities;
Counselling and personal development: career interests and aspirations;
Design of environments and work: health and safety;
Employee relations and motivation: team-building, inter-group relations
(adapted from The British Psychological Society, cited in Arnold and Randall, 2010:20).
However, as Human Resource Managers are strategically implementing the same areas into the workplace, Anders and Prutton argues that work psychologist needs to move away from the technical specialist role and towards the general business consultant’s role (1993).
The next sections will explore some of the management tools that manage psychology at work.
Psychometric testing
Psychometric testing is a psychological assessment, which businesses can use to measure individual differences, for example personality, attitude, ability and intelligence (Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2010). This has become more popular over the years, and statistics shows that the popularity increased from 30% of organisations in 1985 to 50% in 2000 (Baker and Cooper, 2000). It is argued that psychometric testing gives good return on investment, as it both cut recruitment cost by 30% to 40%, as well as increase effectiveness of new recruit (Personnel Today, 2017) However, there has been a rise in concerns about the test being poorly designed, due to the rise in popularity (Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2010).
If you want to read more about psychometric testing, this presentation from CIPD is useful.
Managing well-being at work
Psychologists are assessing the healthy and unhealthy dynamics of the work environment (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). The employee well-being has been defined as ‘the part of an employee’s overall well-being that they perceive to be determined primarily to work and which can be influenced by workplace interventions’ (Juniper, 2009). This definition identifies employee’s own perception of well-being, and how it relates to work. Pilbeam and Corbridge argues that managing well-being at work improves business performance, and that businesses need to acknowledge its importance (2010). Patterson (2001) conclude that work psychology has ‘enriched the lives of employees at work and promoted social justice’.
Figure 3 shows different levels of strategic management of employee well-being.
Figure 3: A multi-dimensional perspectives of employee well-being, adapted from Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2010:417.
In order to learn more about managing stress, take a look at this TED talk, where the psychologist Kelly McGonigal talks about ‘How to make stress your friend’
Big five personality factors, Goldberg (1990)
Neuroticism
The tendency to be depressed, anxious, insecure, vulnerable and hostile
Extraversion
The tendancy to be sociable and assertive and to have positive energy
Openness
The tendency to be informed, creative, insightful, and curious
Agreeableness
The tendency to be accepting, conforming, trusting, and nurturing
Conscientiousness
The tendancy to be thorough, organised, controlled, dependable, and decisive
Nielsen et al. (2016) researched the relationship between the big five personality factors and exposure to harassment. They conducted a meta-analysis with 36 samples, and 13,896 respondents in total. Their findings showed that harassment was positively associated with neuroticism, and on the other hand, negatively with extraversion as well as conscientiousness (Nielsen et al.,2016). Nielsen et al. recommend that ‘personal characteristics should therefore always be considered when investigating harassment in the workplace’ (2016).
Discussion: Is it a new trend in management?
New
The historical fact that that psychology was applied to work for the first time in 1913 by Hugo Münsterberg, shows that it is not particular new, as Business dictionary define new as ‘Having recently come into existence or use, or not seen or done before’ (2017a)
Trend
A trend can be defined as ‘a pattern of gradual change in a condition, output, or process, or an average or general tendency of a series of data points to move in a certain direction over time, represented by a line or curve on a graph’ (Business dictionary, 2017b)
Research from Raley et al. (2003) shows that there are little materials on work psychology in psychology textbooks. Their study of 60 psychology textbooks found that only half of them covered work psychology, in addition, the average pages was five out of 600. On the other hand, ‘the number of published scientific articles and masters’ dissertations and doctoral theses has shown a steady proportional increase from 1950 to 1990 (with an explosion in research outputs between 1990 and 2008)’ (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2010)
Also the earlier discovered trend in use of psychometric testing, organisational psychology is an increasing trend.
Management
Management ‘is the activity of getting things done with the aid of people and other resources’ (Boddy, 2014:10).
In order to improve business performance, managers use various sciences from organisational psychology to enhance their businesses and make their employees thrive.
It is therefore not new, but it is an increasing trend in management.
References
Anderson, N. and Prutton, K. (1993) ‘Occupational psychology in business: Strategic resource or purveyor of test?’. The Occupational Psychologist, 20, 3-10.
Arnold, J. and Randall, R. (2010) Work psychology: understanding human behaviour in the workplace. 5th Ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Baker, B. and Cooper, J. (2000) ‘Occupational testing and psychometric instruments: an ethical perspective’, in Winstanley, D. and Woodall, J. (eds) Ethical Issues in Contemporary HRM. Basingstoke: Macmillian Business.
Bekerian, D.A., and Levey, A.B. (2012) Applied Psychology: Putting theory into practice. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford university press.
Blackler, F. (1982) ‘Organizational psychology’, in Canter, S. and Canter, D. (eds), Psychology in Practice. Chichester: John Wiley.
Boddy, D. (2014) Management: An introduction. 6th Ed. Harlow: Pearson
Furnham, A. (2005) The psychology of behaviour at work: The individual in the organization. 2nd Ed. Hove and New York: Psychology Press.
Goldberg, L.R. (1990) ‘An alternative “description of personality”: The big-five factor structure’. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.
Juniper, B. (2009) ‘Measuring employee well-being: you can only manage what you can measure’. HR bulletin: research and practice. CIPD Portsmouth, June.
Nielsen, M.B., Glasø, L. and Einarsen, S. (2016) ‘Exposure to workplace harrasment and the Five Factor Model of personality: A meta-analysis’. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, p 195-206.
Patterson, F. (2001) ‘Developments in work psychology: Emerging issues and future trends’. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 381-390.
Pilbeam, S. and Corbridge, M. (2010) People resourcing and talent planning: HRM in Practice. 4th Ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Raley, A.B., Lucas, J.L. and Blazek, M.A. (2003) ‘Representation of I-O psychology in introductory psychology textbooks’. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 41, 62-6. ¨
Schöpflug, W. (1993) ‘Applied psychology: Newcomer with a long tradition’. Applied Psychology: An international Review, 42, 5-30.
Schreuder, A.M.G. & Coetzee, M. (2009). A historical overview of research on I/O Psychology in South Africa. Poster presented at SIOPSA 12th Annual Conference, June,
CSIR, Pretoria. [Online] Available from: http://sajip.co.za/index.php/sajip/article/downloadSuppFile/903/445 [Accessed 05.02.2017].
Schreuder, D. and Coetzee, M. (2010) ‘An overview of industrial and organisational psychology research in South Africa: A preliminary study’. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36 (1): 11 pages.
Spector, P. (2003) Industrial and organizational psychology: research and practice. New York: Wiley.
Introduction
Table of Contents
This wiki will explore what Organisational Psychology is, and how it developed through historical events. It will identify and explore different aspects within psychology at work. Finally, it will discuss whether or not Organisational Psychology is a new trend in management.
What is Organisational Psychology
This section are looking at how organisational psychology can be defined, and how it applies basic psychological principles.
Defining the concept
Organisations use organisational psychology in various settings, for example to ‘motivate staff, improve recruitment practices, help their employees gain new skills, cope with redundancies etc.’ (The British Psychological Society, 2000-2017). The goal is to get the most from their employees or human resources (Spector, 2003), by applying basic psychological factors to the workplace. It is easy to confuse it with Human Resource Management (HRM), however HRM apply both ‘psychological and management principles in an organisation’ (Furnham, 2005:56).
The term ‘organisational psychology’ has various labels, including ‘Industrial psychology, industrial/organisational psychology (I/O psychology, USA), occupational psychology (UK)’, ‘work psychology’ (Arnold and Randall, 2010:19). Arnold and Randall use the term ‘work psychology’ because this include both the individual and organisation levels, and they define work psychology as ‘it concerns all aspects of human behaviour, thoughts, feelings and experiences concerning work’ (2010:20). The British Psychological Society uses the term ‘occupational psychology’ and it is more focused on how to ‘get the best from their workforce and improve the job satisfaction of their employees’ (2000-2017). Bekerian and Levey argues that ‘groups are one of the most important aspects of our working environment’ and that organisational psychology is ‘concerned with understanding all aspects of groups, from how individuals form groups and develop group norms, to how groups make decisions’ (2012:116). However, Blackler argues that the main differences are that organisational psychology focuses on group and organisation oriented topics, whereas occupational psychology are more individual oriented (1985).
Basic psychology and applied psychology
Organisational psychology or work psychology, applies theories and techniques from the basic psychology which consist of five areas;
(Arnold and Randall, 2010:6).
Figure 1 shows how information and ideas flows between the five areas of basic psychology, applied psychology and the practical opportunities and problems.
There are disagreement around the relationship between basic- and applied psychology. Schönpflug claim that the applied psychology has not been improved by basic psychology (1993). On the other hand, Arnold and Randall argues that basic psychology supply ideas and techniques to work psychology (2010). However, Schönpflug’s claim is old, and evidences from the workplaces can be identified from the five basic elements and the eight knowledge dimensions.
History and development of Organisational Psychology
This section will give the background of how OP developed over time, and XXXXX
Roots
Two distinct roots within applied psychology;
The scientific-management approach acknowledges the individual differences as important factors which affect productivity (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). Taylor’s (1911) studies of time and motion was central in this approach. His goal was to ‘determine the most efficient way of performing tasks’ (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). Fitting the man to the job (FMJ) and fitting the job to the man (FJM) emerged from Taylor’s studies;
During the first World War, the demand for recruiting suitable soldiers to various post accelerated (FMJ), and therefore developed ability and personality tests (Arnold and Randall, 2010). In addition, the ammunition factories ‘first introduced personnel selection and training’ (Bekerian and Levey, 2010:107). Another example was given by Taylor, who improved efficiency by redesigning work tools to fit the worker’s height and size (Bekerian and Levey, 2012).
After the second World War, The UK Civil Service began to employ a considerable number of psychologists after the second world war’ (Arnold and Randall, 2010:17)
Moving on, the human relation movement acknowledged that productivity and efficiency was affected by the workers’ feelings and attitudes (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). One central study in this field was the Hawthorne studies (1924-1939), which changed the emphasis away from the physical environment towards the social environment at work (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). This study found both that employees’ performance is ‘influenced by their surroundings and by the people that they are working with’ (The Economist, 2008). Read more about the Hawthorne studies .
Did you know…?
…… that in 384-322 BC was the Beginning of Psychology?
The Greek philosopher Aristotle ‘outlined a system of thought dealing with reason, will, imagination, emotion, and memory’ (Bekerian and Levey, 2012:28).
…… the First textbook in psychology was written as early as in 1874?
Willhelm Wundt, a German psychologist wrote the book ‘Foundations of Physiological Psychology’ with a scientific approach (Bekerian and Levey, 2012:16).
…….it was not until Taylor (1911) studied time and motions, that the scientific management approach rise and FJM and FMJ emerged? (Bekerian and Levey, 2012).
……. that psychology was applied to work for the first time in 1913?
Hugo Münsterberg wrote the book ‘Psychology and Industrial efficiency’ and became the first recognised applied psychologist in USA (Bekerian and Levey, 2012).
Timeline
Figure 2 shows the historical overview of research on I/O psychology. Although this was applied to South Africa, many of the events are applicable to UK and other parts of the world.
Managing Organisational Psychology
This sections identifies eight knowledge dimensions of organisational psychology, and will explore psychometric testing as a management tool as well as managing well-being at work.
8 knowledge dimensions
Today, the organisational psychology can be divided into eight knowledge dimensions;
(adapted from The British Psychological Society, cited in Arnold and Randall, 2010:20).
However, as Human Resource Managers are strategically implementing the same areas into the workplace, Anders and Prutton argues that work psychologist needs to move away from the technical specialist role and towards the general business consultant’s role (1993).
The next sections will explore some of the management tools that manage psychology at work.
Psychometric testing
Psychometric testing is a psychological assessment, which businesses can use to measure individual differences, for example personality, attitude, ability and intelligence (Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2010). This has become more popular over the years, and statistics shows that the popularity increased from 30% of organisations in 1985 to 50% in 2000 (Baker and Cooper, 2000). It is argued that psychometric testing gives good return on investment, as it both cut recruitment cost by 30% to 40%, as well as increase effectiveness of new recruit (Personnel Today, 2017) However, there has been a rise in concerns about the test being poorly designed, due to the rise in popularity (Pilbeam and Corbridge, 2010).
If you want to read more about psychometric testing, this presentation from CIPD is useful.
Managing well-being at work
Psychologists are assessing the healthy and unhealthy dynamics of the work environment (Bekerian and Levey, 2012). The employee well-being has been defined as ‘the part of an employee’s overall well-being that they perceive to be determined primarily to work and which can be influenced by workplace interventions’ (Juniper, 2009). This definition identifies employee’s own perception of well-being, and how it relates to work. Pilbeam and Corbridge argues that managing well-being at work improves business performance, and that businesses need to acknowledge its importance (2010). Patterson (2001) conclude that work psychology has ‘enriched the lives of employees at work and promoted social justice’.
Figure 3 shows different levels of strategic management of employee well-being.
In order to learn more about managing stress, take a look at this TED talk, where the psychologist Kelly McGonigal talks about ‘How to make stress your friend’
Nielsen et al. (2016) researched the relationship between the big five personality factors and exposure to harassment. They conducted a meta-analysis with 36 samples, and 13,896 respondents in total. Their findings showed that harassment was positively associated with neuroticism, and on the other hand, negatively with extraversion as well as conscientiousness (Nielsen et al.,2016). Nielsen et al. recommend that ‘personal characteristics should therefore always be considered when investigating harassment in the workplace’ (2016).
Discussion: Is it a new trend in management?
New
The historical fact that that psychology was applied to work for the first time in 1913 by Hugo Münsterberg, shows that it is not particular new, as Business dictionary define new as ‘Having recently come into existence or use, or not seen or done before’ (2017a)Trend
A trend can be defined as ‘a pattern of gradual change in a condition, output, or process, or an average or general tendency of a series of data points to move in a certain direction over time, represented by a line or curve on a graph’ (Business dictionary, 2017b)
Research from Raley et al. (2003) shows that there are little materials on work psychology in psychology textbooks. Their study of 60 psychology textbooks found that only half of them covered work psychology, in addition, the average pages was five out of 600. On the other hand, ‘the number of published scientific articles and masters’ dissertations and doctoral theses has shown a steady proportional increase from 1950 to 1990 (with an explosion in research outputs between 1990 and 2008)’ (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2010)
Also the earlier discovered trend in use of psychometric testing, organisational psychology is an increasing trend.
Management
Management ‘is the activity of getting things done with the aid of people and other resources’ (Boddy, 2014:10).
In order to improve business performance, managers use various sciences from organisational psychology to enhance their businesses and make their employees thrive.
It is therefore not new, but it is an increasing trend in management.
References
Anderson, N. and Prutton, K. (1993) ‘Occupational psychology in business: Strategic resource or purveyor of test?’. The Occupational Psychologist, 20, 3-10.
Arnold, J. and Randall, R. (2010) Work psychology: understanding human behaviour in the workplace. 5th Ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Baker, B. and Cooper, J. (2000) ‘Occupational testing and psychometric instruments: an ethical perspective’, in Winstanley, D. and Woodall, J. (eds) Ethical Issues in Contemporary HRM. Basingstoke: Macmillian Business.
Bekerian, D.A., and Levey, A.B. (2012) Applied Psychology: Putting theory into practice. 2nd Ed. New York: Oxford university press.
Blackler, F. (1982) ‘Organizational psychology’, in Canter, S. and Canter, D. (eds), Psychology in Practice. Chichester: John Wiley.
Boddy, D. (2014) Management: An introduction. 6th Ed. Harlow: Pearson
Business Dictionary (2017a) Defining ‘New’. [Online] Available from: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/new.html [Accessed 10.02.2017].
Business Dictionary (2017b) Defining ‘trend’. [Online] Available from: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/trend.html [Accessed 10.02.2017].
Furnham, A. (2005) The psychology of behaviour at work: The individual in the organization. 2nd Ed. Hove and New York: Psychology Press.
Goldberg, L.R. (1990) ‘An alternative “description of personality”: The big-five factor structure’. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.
Jenny and Josie (unknown) ‘Introduction to Psychometric testing’, CIPD. [Online] Available from: http://www2.cipd.co.uk/nr/rdonlyres/c0f9a915-50b9-4cfa-8258-ad6c86b45b9c/0/introductiontopsychometrictesting.pdf [Accessed 10.02.2017].
Juniper, B. (2009) ‘Measuring employee well-being: you can only manage what you can measure’. HR bulletin: research and practice. CIPD Portsmouth, June.
McGonigal, K. (2013) ‘How to make stress your friend’, TED global. [Online] Available from: https://www.ted.com/playlists/315/talks_to_help_you_manage_stres [Accessed 09.02.2017].
Nielsen, M.B., Glasø, L. and Einarsen, S. (2016) ‘Exposure to workplace harrasment and the Five Factor Model of personality: A meta-analysis’. Personality and Individual Differences, 104, p 195-206.
Patterson, F. (2001) ‘Developments in work psychology: Emerging issues and future trends’. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 381-390.
Personnel Today (2017) Trade secrets: Psychometric testing. [Online] Available from: http://www.personneltoday.com/hr/trade-secrets-psychometric-testing/ [Accessed 10.02.2017].
Pilbeam, S. and Corbridge, M. (2010) People resourcing and talent planning: HRM in Practice. 4th Ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Raley, A.B., Lucas, J.L. and Blazek, M.A. (2003) ‘Representation of I-O psychology in introductory psychology textbooks’. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 41, 62-6. ¨
Schöpflug, W. (1993) ‘Applied psychology: Newcomer with a long tradition’. Applied Psychology: An international Review, 42, 5-30.
Schreuder, A.M.G. & Coetzee, M. (2009). A historical overview of research on I/O Psychology in South Africa. Poster presented at SIOPSA 12th Annual Conference, June,
CSIR, Pretoria. [Online] Available from: http://sajip.co.za/index.php/sajip/article/downloadSuppFile/903/445 [Accessed 05.02.2017].
Schreuder, D. and Coetzee, M. (2010) ‘An overview of industrial and organisational psychology research in South Africa: A preliminary study’. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36 (1): 11 pages.
Spector, P. (2003) Industrial and organizational psychology: research and practice. New York: Wiley.
The British Psychological Society (2000-2017) A to Z of Psychology. [Online] Available from: http://beta.bps.org.uk/a-z-of-psychology [Accessed 09.02.2017].
The Economist (2008) The Hawthorne effect. [Online] Available from: http://www.economist.com/node/12510632 [Accessed 10.02.2017].